Period of enlightenment people. General characteristics of the era of enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment in Russia

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The Age of Enlightenment is one of the most important periods not only in European history, but also in world culture. Her first ideas arose in

England and immediately spread to France, Germany, Russia and other European countries. Most historians date this ideological era to the end of the 17th and beginning of the 19th centuries, but the time of manifestation of its thoughts in different countries and fields of science and art varies.

Representatives of the Enlightenment

In the 18th century, such writers and philosophers as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu and other cultural figures became prominent representatives of French educational literature. Their works were aimed at issues of a socio-political nature and received pan-European significance. German philosophers of the Enlightenment, such as Kant and Nietzsche, worked to solve moral and religious problems. In England, Locke, Berkeley and Hume developed the ideas of spiritualism, deism and skepticism. The American Age of Enlightenment was very different from the European Age. The actions of America's educators were aimed at fighting the English colonies and breaking with England in general.

Principles of the Age of Enlightenment

Despite some differences in views, the Age of Enlightenment as a whole

was aimed at understanding the natural principles of human life (law, religion, etc.). All existing relationships and forms were subject to criticism from the point of view of a natural and reasonable beginning. Much attention was paid to morality, education and pedagogy, in which the ideals of humanity were preached. The question of human dignity has taken on acute forms.

Signs of the era

There are three main features of the Age of Enlightenment:

1. The theory of equality of all before humanity and the law. People are born equal in their rights, the satisfaction of their individual interests and needs is aimed at establishing fair and reasonable forms of coexistence.

2. Superiority of the mind. Based on scientific achievements, the idea has developed that society and the Universe obey reasonable and logical laws, all the mysteries of the universe have been solved, and the dissemination of knowledge can get rid of all social problems.

3. Historically optimistic attitude. The Age of Enlightenment was built on the belief in the possibility of changing humanity for the better and transforming socio-political foundations in a “rational” way.

conclusions

As the Age of Enlightenment showed, the philosophy of this period greatly influenced the development of further theories about aspects of human life. His ideas formed the basis of democracy and political freedom as the basic values of modern society. Liberalism, being a modern socio-political movement, arose on the basis of Enlightenment theories. The American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen are based on Enlightenment principles. However, the principles of the Enlightenment did not escape criticism. With the advent of postmodernism, certain aspects of philosophy began to be perceived as deficiencies. The activities of the educators seemed unrealistic. Inattention to tradition and excessive specialization were condemned.

Socio-political processes were reflected in the ideological struggle - in the revitalization of ideological life, in the emergence of a whole galaxy of thinkers who posed in their work the most pressing problems of philosophy, sociology, art, and the like. Therefore, the 18th century in France bears the name of the century Enlightenment, and the writers of this era are known in Russian historical literature under the general name of enlighteners.

Enlighteners discussed and disputed the problems of property and attitude towards the people, their opinions were divided on the question of whether to give the people the fullness of the truth or leave it as the privilege of the elect; Some of them relied on enlightened absolutism, hoping with the help of a “philosopher on the throne” to eliminate the most glaring ulcers of the regime, while others were ready to look for a way out in a popular uprising or even in a pan-European revolution.

The fairly widespread spread of literacy in France in the 18th century (historians believe that on the eve of 1789 in France there were more than 47% of literate men and about 27% of literate women) led to the development of printing. The government, by sending writers to the Bastille and burning their books at the stake, thereby aroused even greater interest in them. According to contemporaries, the books of the enlighteners were in everyone’s hands.

The rural priest is rightfully considered one of the founders of the French Enlightenment Jean Meslier(1664-1729), whose essay “Testament” sharply criticizes not only the feudal-absolutist system, but also the foundations of a society built on the appropriation of the results of the labor of others.

Meslier sought to educate the people in order to encourage them to make a revolution. He called on his contemporaries: “Try to unite, as many of you as there are, you and others like you, in order to finally shake off the tyrannical rule... overthrow all these thrones of injustice and wickedness everywhere, defuse all these crowned heads, knock down pride and arrogance from all our tyrants.” .

Charles Louis Montesquieu

An outstanding representative of the educational movement in France was Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689-1755), occupied

prominent position in the provincial government of France (first councilor and then president of the Bordeaux parliament), writer, sociologist and historian. In the anonymous novel Persian Letters (1721), he created a sharp satire on the feudal-absolutist system.

The main thing in Montesquieu's teachings is the distinction between three forms of government: despotism, the basis of which is fear, a monarchy based on the “principle of honor,” and a republic based on virtue. Recognizing the theoretical advantage of a republic, Montesquieu declared it feasible only in small countries; despotism, according to his teaching, is characteristic of the huge states of the East - Persia, India, China. Thus, the most suitable form of government for France was declared to be a monarchy.

Montesquieu's views were progressive for their time, although they were imbued with a spirit of compromise. Not recognizing revolutionary methods of struggle, Montesquieu tried to put a barrier of laws in the way of arbitrary power. Therefore, his teaching found many supporters among the liberal elite. It was reflected in the American Constitution and in a number of constitutional documents of the first stages of the French Revolution.

Of all the French enlighteners, the greatest influence on his contemporaries was (François-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778), whose name is sometimes referred to as the entire era of Enlightenment. He was a writer, playwright, publicist, historian and philosopher of enormous talent, who left a deep mark on the development of social thought of his time in France and far beyond its borders.

Voltaire devoted his entire long creative life, which began in 1717 with the tragedy of Oedipus, to the struggle against religious fanaticism, against the remnants of serfdom in France, against the court clique. His Philosophical Letters amazed the reader with the boldness of his thoughts. “I don’t know who is more useful for the state - a well-powdered lord who knows exactly what time the king gets up and at what time he goes to bed, and puts on an important air, playing the role of a slave in the hallway of some minister, or a merchant who enriches his country , sending orders from his office to Surag and Cairo and promoting the happiness of the universe.”

Voltaire was extremely active in all genres, taking on the problems of modern exact sciences, poetry, and drama. Voltaire’s enormous influence on his contemporaries and subsequent generations was determined by the spirit of his freedom-loving, mocking doubt in all the laws and norms of the old world, which gave birth to his brilliant creativity, sparkling with talent, irony, and intelligence.

The materialist philosopher and writer of great talent Denis Diderot (1713-1784), creator and long-term editor of the famous “Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts,” was of enormous importance in the development of educational ideology. Among the contributors to the Encyclopedia were Montesquieu, Turgot, Voltaire, Rousseau, d'Alembert, all the greatest thinkers of the era, scientists, engineers, and doctors.

The Encyclopedia was simultaneously a reference, scientific and polemical publication. Much that the authors could not write for fear of censorship persecution was hinted at and in this form reached the readers.

Among Diderot's like-minded people, philosophers stood out Holbach(1723-1789) and Helvetius(1715-1771), who left a noticeable mark on the development of materialistic thought. Holbach is also known as one of the greatest militant atheists of his century; unlike Voltaire, he spoke out not only against the fanaticism and intolerance of the Catholic Church, but also against religion in general, denying the existence of God.

The political views of Holbach and Helvetius were moderate. Holbach wrote that social “inequality is the pillar of society... Thanks to the differences of people and their inequality, the weak is forced to resort to the protection of the strong; it also forces the latter to resort to the knowledge and skill of the weaker, if he considers it useful for himself.”

From among the people, like Diderot, he came out and Jean-Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778), one of the founders of a new direction of social thought - egalitarianism. He stated: “Labor... is an inevitable duty for a social person. Every idle citizen - rich or poor, strong or weak - is a rogue.” Rousseau thereby expressed the attitude of the working masses of France towards the privileged classes.

Rousseau declares private property to be the culprit of all social evils.

Of particular importance is Rousseau’s treatise “On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law,” in which the author expressed in a clear and figurative form the vague feelings and hidden aspirations of the people. More than any other writer of the Enlightenment, Jean-Jacques Rousseau raised the problem of equality as the main demand of the age.

The Age of Enlightenment also produced several advanced thinkers, representatives of utopian communism. They go further than the egalitarians, seeing the source of all the evils of society in private property. Instead, they put forward the ideal of a social system based on the principles of public property, joint labor and equal distribution. History has preserved their names - these are Morelli and Gabriel Bonneau de Mably.

And France walked towards the approaching storm. Rousseau’s words from his famous novel “Emile” were passed down from mouth to mouth: “We are approaching a state of crisis and an age of revolution.” This “age of revolutions” was already approaching closely. The thousand-year-old French monarchy was entering a period of decisive trials.

The basis of this intellectual movement was rationalism and freethinking.

Starting in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, this movement spread to France, Germany, Russia and covered other European countries. The French enlighteners were especially influential, becoming “masters of thought.” Enlightenment principles formed the basis of the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

The intellectual movement of this era had a great influence on subsequent changes in the ethics and social life of Europe and America, the struggle for national independence of the American colonies of European countries, the abolition of slavery, and the formulation of human rights. In addition, it shook the authority of the aristocracy and the influence of the church on social, intellectual and cultural life.

Descartes' Discourse on Method

Actually, the term enlightenment came into the Russian language, as well as into English (The Enlightenment) and German (Zeitalter der Aufklärung) from French (siècle des lumières) and mainly refers to the philosophical movement of the 18th century. At the same time, it is not the name of a certain philosophical school, since the views of Enlightenment philosophers often differed significantly from each other and contradicted each other. Therefore, enlightenment is considered not so much a complex of ideas as a certain direction of philosophical thought. The philosophy of the Enlightenment was based on criticism of the traditional institutions, customs and morals that existed at that time.

There is no consensus regarding the dating of this ideological era. Some historians attribute its beginning to the end of the 17th century, others - to the middle of the 18th century. The foundations of rationalism were laid by Descartes in his work “Discourse on Method” (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815). At the same time, there is an opinion about linking the boundaries of the Enlightenment era to two revolutions: the “Glorious Revolution” in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

1 Essence
2 Periodization according to G. May
3 Religion and morality
- 3.1 Dissolution of the Society of Jesus
4 Historical significance
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Bibliography
8 Links
9 Literature

Essence

During the Enlightenment, there was a rejection of the religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. For the first time in history, the question of the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of social development was raised.

Scientists of a new type sought to disseminate knowledge and popularize it. Knowledge should no longer be the exclusive possession of a few initiated and privileged, but should be accessible to all and of practical use. It becomes the subject of public communication and public debate. Even those who had traditionally been excluded from studies - women - could now take part in them. There were even special publications designed for them, for example, in 1737, the book “Newtonianism for Ladies” by Francesco Algarotti. It is characteristic how David Hume begins his essay on history (1741):

There is nothing that I would recommend to my readers more seriously than the study of history, for this activity is better suited than others to both their sex and education - much more instructive than their usual books for amusement, and more interesting than the serious works that can be found in their closet. Original text (English)

There is nothing which I would recommend more earnestly to my female readers than the study of history, as an occupation, of all others, the best suited both to their sex and education, much more instructive than their ordinary books of amusement, and more entertaining than those serious compositions, which are usually to be found in their closets.

- “Essay of the study of history” (1741).

The culmination of this desire to popularize knowledge was the publication of Diderot et al. "Encyclopedia" (1751-1780) in 35 volumes. It was the most successful and significant “project” of the century. This work brought together all the knowledge accumulated by humanity up to that time. he clearly explained all aspects of the world, life, society, sciences, crafts and technology, everyday things. And this encyclopedia was not the only one of its kind. Others preceded her, but only the French one became so famous. Thus, in England, Ephraim Chambers published a two-volume “Cyclopedia” in 1728 (in Greek, “circular education”, the words “-pedia” and “pedagogy” are the same root). In Germany in 1731-1754, Johan Zedler published the “Great Universal Lexicon” (Großes Universal-Lexicon) in 68 volumes. It was the largest encyclopedia of the 18th century. it had 284,000 keywords. By comparison: in the French “Encyclopedia” there were 70,000 of them. But, firstly, it became more famous, and already among its contemporaries, because it was written by the most famous people of its time, and this was known to everyone, while over the German Many unknown authors worked on the lexicon. Secondly: her articles were more controversial, polemical, open to the spirit of the times, partly revolutionary; they were crossed out by censorship, there were persecutions. Thirdly: at that time the international scientific language was already French, not German.

Simultaneously with general encyclopedias, special encyclopedias also appeared for various individual sciences, which then grew into a separate genre of literature.

Latin has ceased to be a scientific language. In its place comes the French language. Ordinary literature, non-scientific, was written in national languages. A big debate about languages flared up among scientists at that time: whether modern languages could displace Latin. On this topic, and in general on the issue of superiority between antiquity and modernity, Jonathan Swift, the famous educator and author of Gulliver's Travels, wrote, for example, a satirical story “The Battle of the Books,” published in 1704. With the parable of the spider and the bee contained in this story, he perfectly and wittily expressed the essence of the dispute between supporters of ancient and modern literature.

The main aspiration of the era was to find, through the activity of the human mind, the natural principles of human life (natural religion, natural law, the natural order of the economic life of the physiocrats, etc.). From the point of view of such reasonable and natural principles, all historically established and actually existing forms and relations (positive religion, positive law, etc.) were criticized.

Periodization according to G. May

There are many contradictions in the views of thinkers of this era. The American historian Henry F. May identified four phases in the development of philosophy of this period, each of which to some extent denied the previous one.

The first was the moderate or rational Enlightenment phase, associated with the influence of Newton and Locke. It is characterized by religious compromise and the perception of the Universe as an orderly and balanced structure. This phase of the Enlightenment is a natural continuation of the humanism of the 14th-15th centuries as a purely secular cultural movement, characterized, moreover, by individualism and a critical attitude towards traditions. But the Age of Enlightenment is separated from the Age of Humanism by the period of religious reformation and Catholic reaction, when theological and ecclesiastical principles again took precedence in the life of Western Europe. The Enlightenment is a continuation of the traditions not only of humanism, but also of advanced Protestantism and rationalistic sectarianism of the 16th and 17th centuries, from which it inherited the ideas of political freedom and freedom of conscience. Like humanism and Protestantism, the Enlightenment in different countries acquired a local and national character. The transition from the ideas of the Reformation era to the ideas of the Enlightenment era is most conveniently observed in England at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries, when deism developed, which was to a certain extent the completion of the religious evolution of the Reformation era and the beginning of the so-called “natural religion”, which was preached by the enlighteners of the 18th century. V. There was a perception of God as the Great Architect who rested from his labors on the seventh day. He gave people two books - the Bible and the book of nature. Thus, along with the caste of priests, a caste of scientists comes forward.

The parallelism of spiritual and secular culture in France gradually led to the discrediting of the former for hypocrisy and fanaticism. This phase of the Enlightenment is called skeptical and is associated with the names of Voltaire, Holbach and Hume. For them, the only source of our knowledge is the unprejudiced mind. There are other connections with this term, such as: enlighteners, enlightenment literature, enlightened (or enlightenment) absolutism. The expression “philosophy of the 18th century” is used as a synonym for this phase of the Enlightenment.

The skeptical phase was followed by a revolutionary phase, associated in France with the name of Rousseau, and in America with Paine and Jefferson. Characteristic representatives of the last phase of the Enlightenment, which became widespread in the 19th century, are philosophers such as Thomas Reed and Francis Hutcheson, who returned to moderate views, respect for morality, law and order. This phase is called didactic.

Religion and Morality

A characteristic educational idea is the denial of any divine revelation, this especially affected Christianity, which is considered the primary source of errors and superstitions. As a result, the choice fell on deism (God exists, but he only created the World and then does not interfere with anything) as a natural religion identified with morality. Not taking into account the materialistic and atheistic beliefs of some thinkers of this era, such as Diderot, most of the enlighteners were followers of deism, who through scientific arguments tried to prove the existence of God and His creation of the universe.

During the Enlightenment, the universe was viewed as an amazing machine that was an efficient cause rather than a final one. God, after the creation of the universe, does not interfere in its further development and world history, and man at the end of the path will neither be condemned nor rewarded by Him for his deeds. The guide for people in their moral behavior is laicism, the transformation of religion into natural morality, the commandments of which are the same for everyone. The new concept of tolerance does not exclude the possibility of practicing other religions only in private life and not in public life.

Dissolution of the Society of Jesus

The attitude of the Enlightenment to the Christian religion and its connection with civil power was not the same everywhere. If in England the struggle against absolute monarchy had already been partially resolved thanks to the Bill of Rights of 1689, which officially put an end to religious persecution and pushed faith into the subjective-individual sphere, then in continental Europe the Enlightenment retained a strong hostility towards the Catholic Church. States began to take a position of independence of domestic politics from the influence of the papacy, as well as increasingly limiting the autonomy of the curia in church matters.

The Jesuits, implacable defenders of papal authority, against the backdrop of growing conflict between church and state, as well as public opinion calling for the destruction of the order, were expelled from almost all European countries. In 1759 they were driven out of Portugal, followed by France (1762) and Spain (1769). In 1773, Pope Clement XIV published the bull Dominus ac Redemptor, in which he decreed the dissolution of the Society of Jesus. All of the order's property was confiscated and, most of it, was used to create public places controlled by the state. However, the Jesuits did not completely disappear from Europe, since in Russia Catherine the Great, although very close to the idea of the Enlightenment, refused to publish the papal breve about the dissolution.

Historical meaning

Portrait of Voltaire from the palace of the Prussian king Frederick the Great of Sansoussi. Engraving by P. Baku

Pan-European significance in the 18th century. received French educational literature in the person of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot and other writers. Their common feature is the dominance of rationalism, which directed its criticism in France to issues of a political and social nature, while the German enlighteners of this era were more concerned with resolving religious and moral issues.

Under the influence of the ideas of enlightenment, reforms were undertaken that were supposed to rebuild all public life (enlightened absolutism). But the most significant consequences of the ideas of the Enlightenment were the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Enlightenment provoked a reaction against itself, which, on the one hand, was a return to the old theological worldview, on the other, an appeal to the study of historical activity, which was greatly neglected by the ideologists of the 18th century. Already in the 18th century, attempts were made to determine the basic nature of enlightenment. Of these attempts, the most remarkable belongs to Kant (Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?, 1784). Enlightenment is not the replacement of some dogmatic ideas with other dogmatic ideas, but independent thinking. In this sense, Kant contrasted enlightenment with enlightenment and declared that it was simply the freedom to use one’s own intellect.

Modern European philosophical and political thought, such as liberalism, largely derives from the Enlightenment. Philosophers of our day consider the main virtues of the Enlightenment to be a strict geometric order of thinking, reductionism and rationalism, contrasting them with emotionality and irrationalism. In this respect, liberalism owes its philosophical basis and critical attitude towards intolerance and prejudice to the Enlightenment. Famous philosophers who hold similar views include Berlin and Habermas.

The ideas of the Enlightenment also underlie political freedoms and democracy as the basic values of modern society, as well as the organization of the state as a self-governing republic, religious tolerance, market mechanisms, capitalism, and the scientific method. Since the Age of Enlightenment, thinkers have insisted on their right to seek the truth, whatever it may be and whatever it may threaten social foundations, without being threatened with being punished “for the Truth.”

After World War II, with the birth of postmodernism, certain features of modern philosophy and science came to be seen as shortcomings: overspecialization, inattention to tradition, unpredictability and the danger of unintended consequences, and an unrealistic assessment and romanticization of Enlightenment figures. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno even believe that the Enlightenment indirectly gave rise to totalitarianism.

Notes

Hackett, Louis. The age of Enlightenment (1992). Archived from the original on February 9, 2012.
Hooker, Richard. The European Enlightenment(unavailable link - history) (1996). Archived from the original on August 29, 2006.
Frost, Martin. The age of Enlightenment (2008). Retrieved January 18, 2008. Archived from the original on February 9, 2012.
"Essay of the study of history" (1741).
Stollberg-Rilinger (2010), p. 187.
Quoted from: G. Gunn. Early American Writing. Introduction. Penguin Books USA Inc., New York, 1994. Pp.xxxvii-xxxviii.
Blissett, Luther. Anarchist Integralism: Aesthetics, Politics and the Après-Garde (1997). Retrieved January 18, 2008. Archived from the original on February 9, 2012.

Bibliography

Gettner, “History of General Literature of the 18th Century”;
Laurent, “La philosophie du XVIII siècle et le christianisme”;
Lanfrey, “L"église et la philosophie du XVIII siècle”;
Stephen, “History of English thought in the XVIII century”;
Biedermann, "Deutschlands geistige, sittliche und gesellige Zustände"

When writing this article, material was used from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron (1890-1907).

Literature

Ogurtsov A.P. Philosophy of science of the Enlightenment. - M.: Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1993. - 213 p.
M. Horkheimer, T. W. Adorno. The concept of enlightenment // Horkheimer M., Adorno T. V. Dialectics of enlightenment. Philosophical fragments. M., St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 16-60
D. Ricuperati. Man of Enlightenment // World of Enlightenment. Historical Dictionary. M., 2003, p. 15-29.

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Age of Enlightenment Information About

Culture never stands still. She is constantly developing, in motion. Every century brings with it something new and previously unknown. So, for example, the 18th century was marked by a new, one of the main stages in the history of culture - late classicism, or, as it is also called, enlightenment. If you are interested in this topic, then continue reading.

Before characterizing this direction, it is important to decide on its definition. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the significant periods in the development of culture at the end of the 17th and mid-18th centuries. It is closely related to the perfection and development of social, philosophical and scientific thought. Its foundations are a philosophy that puts reason at the top of everything - rationalism and a movement in which there are no religious prohibitions on finding the truth - free thinking.

The history of enlightenment began back in the 17th century in England. But then it also spread to nearby territories - France, Russia, Germany. Then this trend penetrated into a number of other European countries. But, despite the fact that England is considered the progenitor of classicism, France made a huge contribution to its development. It was the French philosophers and educators who gave the movement the shape it is known today. His ideas and principles are reflected in the US Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Also, thanks to his influence, some changes took place in the social sphere of America and Europe - slavery was abolished, the legislative system became more humane, the power of the church on various aspects of life was weakened, and the influence of the aristocracy was shaken.

As for the time frame of the Age of Enlightenment, it is difficult to say exactly about them. Some historians believe that this trend was formed in the 17th century. Others believe that only in the middle of the 18th century. The same situation is observed with the end of the era - either 1778 (the death of the greatest French philosopher Voltaire), or 1800-1815 (the start of the Napoleonic Wars).

The main idea of the movement is considered to be the philosophical expression of sensationalism - “tabula rasa”, that is, “blank slate”. A person is born without any individual mental content or genetically determined capabilities and inclinations, but throughout his life he tries to accumulate as much experience, knowledge, and skills as possible, and it is this “drawing” acquired over time on a blank slate that constitutes moral and intellectual characteristics of each of us. This phrase can often be found in the works of John Locke, for example, “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.”

Philosophy

A distinctive feature of education is the belief in a positive change in the world and people’s lives through education. That is why the main ideas are considered to be universal education, education and the resulting equality. After all, if by nature we are all as clean as slates, then there can be no caste division in society: everyone must be assessed solely by their learning. This understanding of human nature was achieved thanks to the era of geographical discoveries, the development of science, philosophy, and culture. People sincerely believed that access to knowledge and diligence could make Francis Bacon out of anyone.

Since enlightenment affects to a greater extent social life and philosophy, various speculative theories are directly related to them. The main ones are:

theory of natural human rights
social contract theory
separation of powers theory
theory of rational egoism

In this era, three dominant thoughts rule the show:

The first is that reason is the basis of everything. It helps a person achieve a successful and happy life. But the mind is formed together with the soul, so they are inextricably linked, and morality should be honored no less than the mind.
The second is that God only created the world, but its further development follows certain laws and rules that were created by people. Their level of intelligence, capabilities, and prospects depend on them. They, and not the heavenly Father, must improve themselves and work to be worthy of their almighty parent.
The third is an inextricable connection with natural science. The world around us needs to be studied, natural sciences are becoming in demand at the state level, they are no longer denied by the church, and scientists are no longer persecuted like magicians and sorcerers.

Also, the era of enlightenment was distinguished by its psychology. Many philosophers and educators, often called encyclopedists, denied the influence of any forces that were hidden from reason or experience on people and their actions. According to some representatives of this trend (J. La Mettrie, D. Diderot, C. Helvetius), a person is nothing more than a machine that has come under the influence of the conditions of civilizations.

Speaking about this time, we should not forget about enlightened absolutism. Many scientists around the world argue about the definition of this term.

Some are of the opinion that this is a state policy aimed at preserving traditions and monarchical orders, but at the same time striving for scientific progress and rational management.
Others believe that enlightened absolutism is an innovative form of government aimed at democratizing society, and an impetus for the formation and development of the bourgeoisie, since under it the nobility loses its leading position, and talented, rather than noble people, are promoted to the political arena.
In addition, there is an opinion that this is one of the stages in the development of an absolute monarchy and does not bring anything new except populism.

Enlightened absolutism appeared thanks to the work of Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau and Montesquieu, namely their theories of natural law. In their opinion, in order to achieve harmony in the state, it is necessary to return rights and freedoms to every person, give everyone equality and put a sage at the head of the country. This idea was liked by many monarchs throughout Europe, in particular, crowned heads from Russia, Prussia and Austria.

In the era of enlightenment, the main directions were considered:

Atheistic-materialistic - it is implied that God does not exist at all, and the world was created according to one of the scenarios dictated by the rationalistic paradigm of thinking. The main representatives are D. Diderot, D. Locke, F. Voltaire, C. Montesquieu and many others.
Utopian-social – the basis is the construction of an ideal society in which justice and equality occupy leading positions. Representatives: A. Saint-Simon, G. Babeuf, R. Owen.

At the end of the 17th - mid-17th centuries, a feudal crisis was observed in Europe. It was followed by skirmishes between different classes of people. All this led to the formation of class struggle and the formation of certain ideologies. Here are their supporting ideas and postulates, which form the basis of the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment:

The main concepts are reason and enlightenment.
To prevent ignorance, you need to educate yourself and learn something new. This contributed to the improvement of science and philosophy.
The main task is to change a person for the better.
The formation of a secular society. The transition from rationalism to sensationalism.
The emergence of a new type of thinking - universalism.

Main ideologies:

Universalism is a multilateral, all-encompassing vision of existence. It is necessary to see the world as a whole, without separating its individual parts and without trying to explain and understand the universe by characterizing fragmented elements.
Sensualism is a philosophical movement that calls for trusting only sensations and experience as the primary and most reliable method of cognition.
Rationalism is a method of cognition according to which reason is primary. Both the behavior and thought process of people must be motivated and evaluated by reason.
Materialism is a paradigm of thinking, according to which matter is the primary principle in relation to secondary ideals. That is, objective reality arose first, and then only on its basis did ideal phenomena (will, consciousness, morality) appear.

List of philosophers

Francois Marie Voltaire (1694-1778) - founder of the French Enlightenment, philosopher, writer. His ideas are that God only created the world, but does not control it. But the main thing is consciousness, which is a property of matter. He also continued the work of D. Locke on sensationalism. Major works in the field of philosophy: “Philosophical Letters” (1733), “Philosophical Dictionary” (1764-1769) and “Metaphysical Treatise” (1734). He also wrote rather frivolous works of fiction that satirically ridiculed the taboos and conventions of backward and enslaved people.
Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) – materialist, philosopher, educator, writer. His reasoning is full of thoughts about the material side of life, about the commonality of movement and matter, consciousness and matter. He, like Voltaire, followed Locke's sensualism. He was one of the ideological organizers of the bourgeois French revolution. Main works: “Encyclopedia” (in collaboration with Jean Baptiste D’Alembert), “Thoughts on the explanation of nature”, “D’Alembert’s conversation with Diderot”, “The Nun”, “Ramo’s Nephew”, etc.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – philosopher, psychologist, idealist. The main goal of his activity is to show the sinfulness of society of that time. He believed that all evil comes from social inequality and civilization, and the modernization of science leads to changes in people's morals. He considered the ideal to be the return of man to the bosom of nature, where he would not be affected by the vices of the city: greed, pride, hypocrisy and lust. He opposed feudalism and supported bourgeois democracy and universal equality. He was also a continuer of sensationalism. Significant works: “Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between people”, “Did the revival of sciences and arts contribute to the improvement of morals”, “Emile, or On education” and “On the social contract, or Principles of political law”, but all the works were burned.
Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689 - 1755) - French writer, historian, philosopher. In his works, he criticizes the politics and system of France at that time and speaks negatively about feudalism. Montesquieu advocates a constitutional monarchy where there is a division of power. Main works: “On the Spirit of Laws” and “Persian Letters”.
Jean Meslier (1664 – 1729) – materialist philosopher, Catholic priest. He criticized the political system of France and advocated that people organize a revolution. He is known for only one work, “The Testament,” which was first published in England.
Julien Ofret de La Mettrie (1709 – 1751) – French materialist philosopher and physician. He was engaged in the development of evolutionary ideas about the progress of society, rejected cardinal decisions and radical views. He believed that the body dominates the spirit. His main work, “Man-Machine,” examines man in comparison with a clockwork mechanism.
Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715 – 1771) – French philosopher and writer. In his opinion, to achieve a scientific “lifestyle” it is necessary that the state, through regulation, provide people with moral, ethical and cultural education. Main works: “About the Mind” and “About Man”.
As for the German enlightenment, the most significant here are H. Wolf (1679 - 1754) and G. E. Lessing (1729 - 1781).

Enlightenment culture

The innovative activities of the era had a great influence on culture. Many figures discovered new opportunities for themselves and gained creative freedom. The general cultural trend is the use of previous forms, but in a new interpretation. For the most part, the use of previously opposing styles - romanticism and classicism. It was during the period of enlightenment that sentimentalism arose, which was characterized by highly moral content and sensitivity elevated to a cult.

As for fine art, a new style appears here - genre painting. An intimate portrait also occupies one of the main places.

In the first half of the 18th century, the Rococo style appeared, which is distinguished by its pomp, splendor and sophistication.

But all the innovations of the Age of Enlightenment are united by a common idea - faith in reason gives rise to the belief in the possibility of positive change in a person and a harmonious state of society.

Enlightenment in art

In literature

A distinctive feature of the literature of this particular period is a large number of philosophical discussions and various state problems in the works. The main character is usually an educated and intelligent person who is trying to change the world for the better. Often, it is he who expresses all the author’s thoughts and ideas.

All works of the Enlightenment era (most often novels) are full of calls for education and reading. It is not surprising, since the texts are dominated by reflections on many pressing topics.

Also at this time, newspapers are printed at an accelerated pace, books and encyclopedias are published. Secular circles and public organizations are formed.

The most famous works:

Francois Marie Voltaire, “Philosophical Dictionary” is the main work of the thinker. In this work, he examines many social and scientific topics, criticizes religion and gives his assessment of what is happening.
François Marie Voltaire's Candide is the philosopher's most famous work. In this story, the author, with the help of his characters, laughs at many curious and absurd manifestations of reality, and also pronounces judgment on the cliches and patterns of behavior accepted in hypocritical and puritanical circles.
Denis Diderot, “Dialogues” - this collection contains instructive conversations between the philosopher and many people.
Denis Diderot, “Ramo” is one of the main works of the materialist philosopher. It presents a dialogue between the writer himself and Rameau, who discuss many philosophical and social topics.
Charles Louis Montesquieu, "Persian Letters" is a satirical novel. The main character goes to Paris, from where he sends notes to his friends regarding life in this city.
Jean Jacques Rousseau, “Emile, or On Education” is a psychological novel by the philosopher, in which he lays the basis for the development of a new pedagogy.
Daniel Defoe, “Robinson Crusoe” (here you can find a detailed one) is a novel that tells about the development of man in the natural environment.
Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels is a fantasy and satirical novel. It openly talks about the vices and sins of people, although formally we are talking about the hero’s journey in the world of Lilliputians and giants.

In painting

As noted earlier, the main innovation of the Age of Enlightenment in painting was the emergence of the Rococo style. The heroines of these paintings, ancient goddesses and nymphs, were often depicted against the backdrop of luxurious palaces and incredible greenery. The main plot is love. This is most clearly noticeable in the work of the French artist Francois Boucher (“The Triumph of Venus”, “Hercules and Omphale”, “Venus asking Vulcan for weapons for Aeneas”, “Toilet of Venus”).

Engravings and frescoes occupied an important place. In this direction there was no equal to Giovanni Tiepolo (“The Angel Saving Hagar”, “Apollo and Daphne”, “The Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra”, “The Marriage Agreement”, “Mercury and Aeneas”), the last of the representatives of the great Venetian school.

Landscapes, especially urban ones, were also very popular. Francesco Guardi ("Grand Canal in the area of the fish market", "Gondola in the lagoon", "View of a square with a palace", "Venetian courtyard") and Antonio Canaletto ("Colosseum, "Venice", "View of the Thames") distinguished themselves in this genre , “View of St. Mark’s Bay”, “View of the Grand Canal of Venice”).

The most famous portraits of the Enlightenment era belong to Thomas Gainsborough (“The Lady in Blue”, “Mr and Mrs Andrews”, “Portrait of Mrs Mary Graham”).

In the theatre

The real rebirth of the theater happened in the 18th century. “Golden Age”, as some would say. They play mainly comedies, but sometimes tragedies (for example, Faust).

Many theaters are opening across Europe. There are 7 of them in Venice alone! In England, the works of Richard Sheridan are played with success - “The School for Scandal”, “The Rivals” and much more. In Venice - "The Innkeepers" by Carlo Goldoni, and all over the world Beaumarchais's play "The Marriage of Figaro" was sold out.

The Age of Enlightenment in Russia

As mentioned earlier, the era of enlightenment did not bypass Russia. Global changes began with the reign of Peter the Great. It was he who ordered the education of the population, the improvement of science, and the publication of newspapers and magazines. Thanks to these transformations, after some time the country entered the stage of Europeanization. After the death of Peter I and repeated changes of power, the work was continued by Catherine II, who followed the ideas of the great French philosophers.

The psychology of Russian education is very different from foreign ones. Despite the abundance of foreign ideas, some Russian thinkers and philosophers tried to introduce something new, to add “their own,” but at the same time not to go beyond the already accepted canon. These, for example, include A.S. Kaisarova, V.V. Popugaev and many others. A.N. also made a great contribution. Radishchev (1749 – 1802). After the publication of the famous work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” where the author openly criticizes serfdom, he is sentenced to death and sent into exile in Siberia.

Representatives

M.V. Lomonosov (1711 – 1765) – Russian scientist, historian, naturalist. It was he who was an innovator in the educational environment, added to the list of compulsory subjects, began to give lectures in Russian, together with I.I. Shuvalov founded Moscow State University. I tried to instill in people the idea of patriotism and the desire to make Russia better, smarter and more progressive.
A.N. Radishchev (1749 – 1802) – writer, philosopher, poet. He opposed serfdom and autocracy, tried to find options for the liberation of the peasants and dreamed of a society in which there would be no oppression of the working class. Also, Radishchev’s ideas helped in the transition from the noble, Decembrist human rights movement to a revolutionary national impulse.
G.S. Skovoroda (1722 – 1794) – Russian and Ukrainian philosopher, writer, poet. He is considered the first original thinker of Russia. He was the founder of Russian religious philosophy. He made an incredibly significant contribution to East Slavic culture.

The era of enlightenment in Russia can be described with the word “new” - new rules, laws, education, art. New life! But the main features or peculiarities include:

The start of change is belated, because enlightenment in Russia began only in the second half of the 18th century.
Much attention is paid to the fate and feelings of a little person (A classic example is “Poor Liza” by Karamzin), as well as history and its development (“History of the Russian State” by the same Karamzin).
Ideas about space as the basis of everything prevail.
Social issues come to the fore: the peasant question, savage morals, widespread ignorance, poverty.

The Age of Enlightenment most influenced literature, which glorified patriotism and a sense of moral duty towards the country. The cult of service to the motherland has become a favorite theme within high genres.

Examples of works

comedy (D.I. Fonvizin “The Minor”),
tragedy (A.P. Sumarokov “Dmitry the Pretender”),
ode (M.V. Lomonosov “On the day of Elizabeth Petrovna’s accession to the throne”),
elegy (G.R. Derzhavin “The Sea”), etc.

Directions were mixed, for example, in the comedy of D.I. Fonvizin's "Undergrowth" made itself felt by classicism and realism.

At the end of the 18th century, sentimentalism began to emerge, which tended to pay attention to the common man and his feelings. The main work of this direction is “Poor Liza” by N.M. Karamzin.

The development of the art of words entailed the formation of original Russian lyrics, which would subsequently lead to the flourishing of the Golden Age of Russian poetry.

In this article we described in detail late classicism - the Enlightenment. We hope that this era has become more clear to you!

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Age of Enlightenment- a time of flourishing of the intellectual life of mankind, the emergence of new ideas, a new philosophy focused on the value of the life and personality of each person and the recognition of the human mind as the main value. According to the saying of the great German philosopher I. Kant, “enlightenment is a person’s exit from the state of minority in which he was due to his own fault.”

The Age of Enlightenment - philosophy and basic tenets of teaching.

The beginning was made back in the era of geographical discoveries, when the horizons of a person who had just emerged from the dark Middle Ages began to rapidly expand. new lands, expansion of trade - all this contributed to the development of science, enrichment of culture and philosophical ideas. The progressive people of the era could no longer be content with religious dogmas, postulates of faith and ancient philosophy. The science of modern times - the discoveries of Copernicus, I. Newton and others - gave birth to a new caste of people who had a special worldview, different from the general one. In their picture of the world, the main place was occupied by the concepts of “natural law,” “reason,” and “nature.” The world seemed to progressive minds to be some kind of perfect mechanism, once debugged and operating exactly with a certain law. The role of God was reduced only to the “beginning of everything”; he was recognized as a force that invented the order of things, but did not directly interfere with life. This doctrine was called “deism” and was very popular among philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries.

Human society was considered to be just a small copy of nature. Philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment- Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Locke, Lomonosov and others believed that it was only necessary to “find” those natural laws on which human society is based and make them mandatory for implementation. They proclaimed human dignity and equality of classes as the natural right of faith, conscience and choice. The relationship between the rulers and the people had to be built on the basis of a natural contract between them, which would limit the extreme despotism of the rulers. This approach was truly revolutionary - the monarch was considered given from above, and the sovereign, crowned by the highest church hierarchs, was considered the vicar of God on earth. That is why most philosophers addressed their messages primarily to monarchs.

Philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment mercilessly criticized the then way of life - unlimited royal power, the fires of the Inquisition, the dominance of the church, the miserable and powerless position of the third estate and the working people - all this seemed to them a wild relic of the past. Philosophers argued that all this was the fruit of monarchs’ failure to comply with their duties towards their subjects and abuse of power. They offered as an example to follow an “enlightened monarch” who would rule the state by enforcing natural law.

Many figures of the Enlightenment experienced persecution by the authorities and the church, their works were burned, subjected to severe censorship, the authors often did not know whether they would wake up tomorrow as living and free people. Thus, one of the first signs of the era of enlightenment, Diderot's Encyclopedia, was banned from publication in France, and the author was forced to look for rich, enlightened patrons. However, these persecutions did not stop philosophers and writers. The Age of Enlightenment became a harbinger, showing people a worthy example to follow and a further path of development.

The Age of Enlightenment brought one of the richest contributions to modern culture; many of its postulates formed the basis of modern European law, UN world declarations and other documents.