Philosophy of the twentieth century. Psychoanalysis, existentialism. Philosophy of psychoanalysis What will we do with the material received?

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The philosophy of the twentieth century reflected all the processes associated with the upheaval of society, the state, the individual, and changes in the status of science. These shocks include socio-economic phenomena, the emergence of mass society, the breakdown of old relations and class barriers, the introduction of computer production, the revolution in natural science, the scientific and technological revolution, the development of the media replacing old means of communication, the entry into the arena of the “new” middle class." All these reasons had a profound impact on the worldview and culture, and could not but affect the philosophy of our time.

The culture of the twentieth century, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, seems to be divided into those who are for scientific and technological progress and those who are against. One of the leading and developing trends of that time were existentialism and psychoanalysis.

Existentialism(French existentialisme from Latin exsistentia - existence), the philosophy of existence is a direction in the philosophy of the 20th century, considering a person as a unique spiritual being, capable of choosing his own destiny. Existence is interpreted as the opposite of essence (essence). If the fate of things and animals is predetermined, that is, they have an essence before existence, then a person acquires his essence in the process of his existence. The main attribute of existence is freedom, which implies anxiety for the result of one’s choice.

Contents of the teaching: The ideological sources of existentialism are the philosophy of life, the phenomenology of Husserl, the religious and mystical teachings of Kierkegaard. There are religious existentialism (Marseille, Jaspers, Berdyaev, Buber) and atheistic (Heidegger, Sartre, Camus). The philosophy of existence reflects the crisis of optimistic liberalism, based on technological progress, but powerless to explain the instability, disorder of human life, the inherent feelings of fear, despair, and hopelessness.

Existentialism is an irrational reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and German classical philosophy. True philosophy from the point of view of existentialism must proceed from the unity of object and subject. This unity is embodied in “existence,” that is, a certain irrational reality. According to existentialist teaching, in order to realize oneself as “existence,” a person must find himself in a “borderline situation,” for example, in the face of death. A significant place in existentialism is occupied by the formulation and solution of the problem of freedom, which is defined as a person’s “choice” of one of countless possibilities. Objects and animals do not have freedom, since they immediately possess “being”, essence. A person comprehends his existence throughout his life and is responsible for every action he commits; he cannot explain his mistakes by “circumstances.” Thus, a person is thought of by existentialists as a self-constructing “project”. Ultimately, ideal human freedom is freedom of the individual from society.

Psychoanalysis(German: Psychoanalysis) - a family of psychological theories and methods aimed at systematically explaining unconscious connections through the associative process. One of the methods of psychotherapy that has become widespread in Europe (early 20th century) and the USA (mid-late 20th century). Psychoanalysis was created at the end of the 19th century. Austrian scientist S. Freud.

The essence of psychoanalysis. Theory human behavior, the first and one of the most influential theories of personality in psychology. The fundamental subject of study of psychoanalysis is unconscious motives of behavior that originate in latent sexual disorders. They are revealed through free associations expressed by the patient. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to help free the patient from hidden or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance, that is, from remaining patterns of relationships that are no longer suitable or suppress freedom.

Basic ideas of psychoanalysis

The structure of the human psyche - there are two areas: conscious and unconscious manifestation of the psyche (the theory of Sigmund Freud)

The unconscious represents the biological nature of man and is controlled by instincts that regulate the sensory sphere of natural needs.

Conscious - controls the unconscious, determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely because the choice of behavior itself can be initiated by the unconscious. It happens that a conflict arises between the conscious and the unconscious, then the balance between the two spheres of the psyche is disturbed. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle, and when the balance is disturbed, it is reset through the unconscious sphere.

Later, Freud proposed the following structure of the psyche: Ego (“I”), Superego (“Super-I”), Id (“It”)

Sigmund Freud identified several defense mechanisms of the psyche: Substitution, Displacement, Feedback, Repression, Projection, Sublimation, Impression, Catharsis, Regression

Complexes: Oedipus complex, Castration complex, Electra complex, Inferiority complex.
Question No. 24. Being and non-being as initial philosophical categories. The formation of the philosophical concept of being. Problems of the material unity of the world.

Any philosophical reasoning begins with the concept of “being”. The question of what being is is constantly present in any philosophizing. Being is one of the most important categories of philosophy. It captures and expresses the problem of its existence in a general form. The word "being" comes from the verb "to be." Philosophy strives to clarify the question of the existence of the world and the existence of people. In modern philosophical literature, two meanings of the word “ being" In the narrow sense of the word, this is an objective world that exists independently of consciousness; in the broad sense, this is everything that exists: not only matter, but also consciousness, ideas, feelings and fantasies of people. Being as an objective reality is denoted by the term “ matter" Thus, being is everything that exists (person, animal, nature, society, fantasy, religion, values, etc.). The antithesis of being is non-existence (nothing). Nothingness- this is everything that is not there. Being and non-being cannot exist without each other: if they were divided so that they could not pass into each other, then everything would disappear, because it would stop moving. The transition to non-being is thought of as the destruction of a given type of being and its transformation into another form of being. The first awareness of the category of being belongs Parmenides(504-501 BC). He says “there is being, but there is no non-being at all.” Plato(427-347 BC) identifies a trace of types of being: 1) the world of eternal, unchanging ideal entities, the world of ideas; 2) the world of things around us (half-being); 3) matter. In the world of existence Dam(203-269) noun 4 kind of being: lowest- this is indefinite matter, a thing as such, from which things are formed (the world of things). Second kind of being- the world of things, the world of nature we observe. It represents copies of imperfect ideas. Third kind of being- the world of ideas. Ideas are intelligible entities that are accessible to the human mind. The fourth kind of being- special matter that constitutes the substrate of ideas. She is the container and source of everything. The concept of “being” is concretized in the concept of “matter”. The problem of matter was developed primarily by materialist philosophers. In materialistic philosophy" matter“acts as the most general fundamental category in which the material unity of the world is fixed, the diversity of forms of being is considered as generated by matter in the course of its movement and development.

Existence - a way of being a person. For the first time in this meaning the term existence is used by Kierkegaard.

Existentialism(from Late Latin exsistentia - existence) - “philosophy of existence”, one of the most fashionable philosophical movements in the middle of the 20th century, which was “the most direct expression of modernity, its lostness, its hopelessness... Existential” philosophy expresses the general sense of time: a feeling of decline, meaninglessness and hopelessness of everything that is happening... Existential philosophy is a philosophy of radical finitude"

Existentialism- This is the philosophy of man. The main theme of all works is man, his relationship with the world, man in his self-awareness. The essence of the existentialist approach is as follows: personality does not depend on the environment, while reason and logical thinking constitute only a certain part of a person (not his main part).

According to existentialism, the task of philosophy is to deal not so much with the sciences in their classical rationalistic expression, but with issues of purely individual human existence. A person, against his will, is thrown into this world, into his destiny, and lives in a world that is alien to himself. His existence is surrounded on all sides by some mysterious signs and symbols. Why does a person live? What is the meaning of his life? What is man's place in the world? What is his choice of his life path? These are really very important questions that people cannot help but worry about. Existentialists proceed from a single human existence, which is characterized by a complex of negative emotions - concern, fear, consciousness of the approaching end of one’s existence. When considering all these and other problems, representatives of existentialism expressed many deep and subtle observations and considerations.

The basis of every personality- this is a certain stream of experiences of his worldview, experiences of his own being. It is this flow of experiences that is called existence. Existence not only does not depend on the environment, it is always unique and inimitable.

Hence d VA output: a person is irresistibly lonely, because all his connections with other people do not provide a full opportunity to express his existence. It can be expressed in his creativity, but any product of creativity is something material and alienated from its creator; a person is internally free, but this freedom is not a blessing, but a heavy burden (“We are cursed by our freedom” J.P. Sartre), because it is associated with the burden of responsibility. Man creates himself.

Exists two varieties of existentialism: religious and atheistic. Religious - the unity of man with God. A real person is forced to live in society, obey its requirements and laws. But this is not true existence.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Worldview, its historical types, functions of philosophy

The main question of philosophy.. philosophy is a system of fundamental ideas as part of a person’s worldview.. in a worldview there are always two opposite angles of view, the direction of consciousness outward formation..

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All topics in this section:

Worldview, its historical types, functions of philosophy
Worldview is a system of ideas about the world and a person’s place in it, about a person’s relationship to the reality around him and to himself, as well as those determined by these preconceptions.

Functions of philosophy
Various functions of philosophy can be distinguished. Let's name the main ones: - The worldview function of philosophy consists in its ability to give a picture of the world as a whole, to combine data

The various relationships of these angles of view permeate all philosophy.
This large multifaceted problem “world-man”, in fact, acts as a universal one and can act as a general formula, an abstract expression of almost any philosophical attempt

Materialism seeks a realistic explanation of the world from itself without extraneous additions
Varieties: 1.Vulgar materialism - its ideas extremely simplified the materialistic worldview, denied the specificity of consciousness, identifying it in the mother

Social reasons
- Connection with historical reasons. Low level of productive forces of society - human vulnerability to the forces of nature - worship of supernatural forces of nature. Now: risky profession

The problem of method in philosophy. Dialectics and metaphysics
Among the variety of scientific methods, we can distinguish those that are used only by one science and characterize its specific area of research. These methods are private scientific ones.

Dialectics allows you to reflect extremely complex, contradictory processes of the material and spiritual world
In the doctrine of contradictions, it reveals the driving force and source of all development. Dialectics is not a simple statement of what is happening in reality, but a tool of scientific knowledge

Agnosticism. Agnosticism of D. Hume and I. Kant, its common features and differences
Agnosticism - the world is not knowable. Within the framework of agnosticism, absolute truth is denied; the role of science is reduced to the knowledge of essence. It is not knowledge that is denied, but the possibility

Aristotle's philosophy, its place in ancient philosophy
Aristotle: Creator of the Lyceum (school in Athens). Criticizes his teacher Plato, his world of ideas. He believed that the world of ideas is useless because... all signs of ideas are found

Philosophy Wed. centuries. Scholasticism. Nominalism and realism. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas
The dominant worldview of the Middle Ages was Christianity. In the Roman state, the problems of an individual are indifferent to the state. Transfer physical resistance

Characteristic features of Renaissance philosophy. Humanism, pantheism
Characteristics of time: 1) The emergence, origin of capitalist relations. 2) Expanding human horizons, the emergence of natural science.

New European philosophy. The fight against scholasticism. Sensationalism. Philosophy of F. Bacon
Western philosophy of modern times opens the next period of philosophical thought. Social prerequisites: 1) Progress in economics, technology, growth of producers

Descartes' rationalism
Rationalism is a philosophical movement that recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior. Opposes both irrationalism and sensationalism. Speaking out against

Philosophy of B. Spinoza. Features of his doctrine of substance
The doctrine of substance was first put forward by Rene Descartes. Substance is everything that exists without needing anything other than itself for its existence.

Philosophy of G.W. Leibniz. Monadology, the study of knowledge
Leibniz. Continuator of Plato's ideas (objective idealism). His merit lies in the fact that he expressed a number of deep thoughts of a dialectical nature.

Philosophical Enlightenment
The Enlightenment enters culture as the triumph of rationalism, the completion of ideas that appeared during the Renaissance and were further developed in the 17th-18th centuries. Education

Subjective idealism of D. Berkeley. Agnosticism of D. Hume
Agnosticism? the world is not knowable. Within the framework of agnosticism, absolute truth is denied; the role of science is reduced to the knowledge of essence. It is not knowledge that is denied, but the possibility of

G.V. Hegel. The doctrine of the absolute idea, system and method
Hegel's historical service to philosophy lies in the fact that he was the first to formulate the concept of dialectics. Dialectics, according to Hegel, is fundamental

Anthropological materialism of L. Feuerbach
He calls his philosophy the philosophy of the future. Considers the human mind, which is a product of nature. Man is the only universal and supreme

Philosophical aspects of the teachings of psychoanalysis
The founder of psychoanalysis is the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on his experience in treating and diagnosing the human psyche, he developed the concept of unconscious mental

Philosophy of science of the twentieth century (positivism, empiriocratism, postpositivism, neopositivism). Philosophy of postmodernism
Positivism is a philosophy of positive knowledge that theoretically rejects speculation and speculation as a means of acquiring knowledge. They said that only the totality of sciences gives the right to talk about the world in general.

Philosophy of positivism and Marxism
PREREQUISITES: Reification of labor. Socio-economic changes. Since 1838, a gradual improvement in the lives of workers began

Positivism and its varieties
Positivism is a philosophical trend that asserts that the source of genuine, “positive” (positive) knowledge can only be certain specific (empirical) sciences and

The structure of dialectics. Principles of dialectics, their methodological significance. Concept of law. Laws of dialectics, their methodological significance
Dialectics – the world is changing, in motion. Since the 19th century (Marx, Hegel) the world has been in development. Metaphysics - the world of statistics

In this regard, dialectics is the most general and abstract teaching about development, regardless of the specific stages of evolution of the objective world, that is, an abstract-universal teaching about development. Di

Some categories of dialectics
Principles of dialectics: 1. The principle of universal mutual connection. 2. The principle of development through contradictions. Basic laws of dialectics:

Being and non-being as initial philosophical categories. The formation of the philosophical concept of being. The problem of the material unity of the world
Greek philosophy. Content: philosophy seeks to explain the totality of reality. Her interests are far from the later interests of science, the branches of which

Consciousness. The origin of consciousness. Essence and main features
One of the main questions of philosophy: There are 2 sides: ***First side: The question arises (about the relationship of consciousness to matter

Problem - scientific question
The question as a form of knowledge arises along with human consciousness. A question as an independent form of thought, which is an interrogative judgment, arises at the level of logical

The theory has
2 main meanings: a) the highest form of scientific knowledge; b) a system of concepts that describe and explain any area of reality.

Teaching about truth. Truth and error, truth and lies. Dialectics of absolute and relative truth
The immediate goal of knowledge is the comprehension of truth, i.e. real knowledge about the world and man. Materialism 17-18 centuries. Couldn't give

Logical cognition, its forms
Logical knowledge is knowledge of the essence of things, phenomena, processes. Logical cognition is a reflection of objects at the level of essence; it extracts the essence from phenomena. 3 log forms

The idea of the essence and purpose of man in various philosophical teachings (religious-mystical, idealistic, materialistic)
Human essence. In the most general form, the essence of a person can be defined through his way of existence. Man is a being

Values, their role in human life and society
Value is something that receives a stable positive assessment, something that is of great importance to us (Truth, goodness, beauty, justice, love). ABOUT

Society and social relations as a subject of philosophical understanding. Formational and civilizational approaches to the history of society
K. Marx identified three main historical types of sociality: - relations of personal dependence (1), - relations of material dependence with personal independence (2), - relations

Society as a subsystem of objective reality
Human society is a product of human interaction; this is the highest stage of development of living systems, the main elements of which are people, the forms of their joint

Nature and man
The emergence of society. The history of human society in a certain sense presents a picture of its changing interaction with nature. However, society does not exist initially. History

Information society. Global problems of our time
Humanity as a global community. Global unity and global danger: in the modern phase of the world-historical process, internationalization is intensively taking place

Social progress. Criteria for social progress
Objective criterion and types of social progress. Objective criterion of progress. Marxism: the development of society is a natural process, the more extensive material opportunities a person has

Culture as a way of human existence. Diversity of culture
Culture is a way of human existence. Man, as a species, is culture. So, he is not cultured because he is a man, but because he is a man, he is cultured. This

Communication function and culture of communication
The cultures of different nations, as well as people - representatives of different cultures, are mutually enriched thanks to the informative function. B. Shaw famously compared the results of the exchange of ideas with the exchange of apples. Co.

Regulatory and evaluative functions of culture
A person cannot help but communicate. Even when he is alone, he continues to conduct an inaudible dialogue with people close or distant to him, with the characters of books, with God or with himself, as he is.

Existence is a way of human being. For the first time in this meaning the term existence is used by Kierkegaard.

exists : a feeling of decline, meaninglessness and hopelessness of everything that happens... Existential philosophy is a philosophy of radical finitude"

Existentialism is a philosophy of man. The main theme of all works is man, his relationship with the world, man in his self-awareness. The essence of the existentialist approach is as follows: personality does not depend on the environment, while reason and logical thinking constitute only a certain part of a person (not his main part).

The basis of each personality is a certain stream of experiences of his worldview, experiences of his own being. It is this flow of experiences that is called existence. Existence not only does not depend on the environment, it is always unique and inimitable.

From here there are two conclusions: a person is irresistibly lonely, because all his connections with other people do not provide a full opportunity to express his existence. It can be expressed in his creativity, but any product of creativity is something material and alienated from its creator; a person is internally free, but this freedom is not a blessing, but a heavy burden (“We are cursed by our freedom” J.P. Sartre), because it is associated with the burden of responsibility. Man creates himself.

There are two varieties of existentialism: religious and atheistic. Religious - the unity of man with God. A real person is forced to live in society, obey its requirements and laws. But this is not true existence.

Philosophical aspects of the teachings of psychoanalysis

The founder of psychoanalysis is the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on his experience in treating and diagnosing the human psyche, he developed a concept of unconscious mental processes and cross-breeding, transferring them to social phenomena.

Freud represents the human psyche as consisting of opposing spheres - the conscious and unconscious, which are separated by a special mental authority - the preconscious. According to Freud, all mental processes are unconscious. The unconscious is a special psychological reality that is inherent in every person, exists along with consciousness and largely controls it.

Freud created a model of personality that correlated with the corresponding systems of the psyche, topographical and dynamic. In the dynamic scheme, the psyche is presented as a combination of three layers: “It” (unconscious), “I” (human consciousness), “Super-I” (external reality influencing the personality). After the formation of the “Super-I” as a result of the interpretation of social norms, prohibitions and rewards, the entire mental apparatus begins to act as a whole.

Freud tries to find out the origin of the onergy of the unconscious. Answering this question, in 1920 he put forward the first psychoanalytic system, according to which the unconscious is based on the sexual instinct - “libido”. This theory was criticized, after which Freud developed a second psychological scheme in which the energy of the unconscious is controlled by “Eros” - the life instinct, and “Thiatos” - the death instinct.

Human behavior is determined by the instinct of tribal self-preservation. All other aspirations are consequences of dissatisfaction and the switching of sexual energy to other areas. Freud, following the traditions of sociology and anthropology, carried out the biologization of man, reducing social and mental phenomena to elementary physiological and biological processes.

One of the most important problems of psychoanalysis is the “Oedipus complex,” an unconscious attraction to a parent. The experience of this complex determines the direction of the formation of a person’s personality and his behavior in later life.

According to Freud, every person strives to satisfy his instincts and drives, and society suppresses these aspirations, which causes a person’s hostile attitude towards the culture of society.

Freud uses the principles and methods of psychoanalysis to analyze religion and religiosity. He draws attention to such functions of religion as the illusory protection of man from the manifestations of nature and protection from the injustices of culture. Freud, denying the value of religion, proposed a transition from religious faith to atheism.

Subject: Philosophy of existentialism and psychoanalysis.

Goal of the work: be able to analyze the philosophy of existentialism and psychoanalysis.

Task No. 1: Reveal the problem of freedom and formation
personality in existentialism.

One of the leading trends in European philosophy of the 20th century. became existentialism (from lat. existentia - existence) - philosophy of existence. S. Kierkegaard is considered its founder. He opposed the rationalism of classical philosophy, accusing reason of absorbing individuality.

The focus of the philosophy of existence is the problem of the essence of human life. According to existentialists, the essence (meaning, purpose) of human existence is found in existence itself. Existence as an essence is hidden from a person by everyday life; it becomes clear to him only in “borderline situations” - between life And death. Fear of death is the only state in which a person leads a truly free, independent existence.

Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) - Danish theologian, philosopher, expressed distrust of reason. S. Kierkegaard's teaching boils down to the fact that reality is not identified with thinking, since it is unthinkable. Kierkegaard criticized previous philosophers, especially Hegel, for being too abstract in their approach to man. They look for in a person only his essence, losing sight of the living and unique individuality with its thoughts and feelings. The deepest truths - life, death - are not known by logic, but are experienced directly. Philosophy is the experience of the eternal in finite existence, the individual destiny of the individual. Experience is love, faith, melancholy, fear, they make up the world of human existence, and this existence is above all laws and patterns. The main thesis of Kierkegaard's religious existentialism is that reason leads a person to despair, faith saves and gives hope.

In Russia, existentialism arose on the eve of the First World War by Nikolai Berdyaev, Leonid Andreev, in Germany - Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger, in the middle of the 20th century. became widespread in French culture - Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvois, Albert Camus (1913-1960) .

The philosophy of existentialism aroused interest because it addressed the problem of critical and crisis situations in which humanity finds itself. The reasons for the interest also lie in the fact that only in the 20th century. humanity has survived two world wars, the approach of an environmental disaster, and increased cruelty towards people. In order to survive, a person needs to understand his inner world, soberly assess his abilities and capabilities.

Many of the existentialist philosophers were engaged in literary creativity. Existentialism is anti-rationalistic, that is, it does not recognize rational knowledge as true, revealing the true value of life. Literature and art, according to existentialists, more fully reflect the essence of human existence. Representatives of existentialism each created their own teaching; what they had in common was the recognition that the highest value of being is being itself, life itself.

The main features of existentialism are an appeal to the individual, restoration and exaltation of the role of individuality in social development. Existentialists paid their main attention to the most important, from their point of view, human states and feelings, such as anxiety, fear, conscience, care, despair, love, etc.

Task No. 2: Determine the basic philosophical meaning of psychoanalysis.

The founder of psychoanalysis is the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Based on his experience in treating and diagnosing the human psyche, he developed the concept of unconscious mental processes and motivations, transferring them to social phenomena. Freud represents the human psyche as consisting of opposing spheres - the conscious and unconscious, which are separated by a special mental authority - the preconscious. According to Freud, all mental processes are unconscious. The unconscious is a special psychological reality that is inherent in every person, exists along with consciousness and largely controls it.

Freud created a model of personality, which was an entire mental system consisting of three levels. In the dynamic scheme, the psyche is presented as a combination of three layers: “It” (unconscious), “I” (human consciousness), “Super-I” (external reality influencing the personality). After the formation of the “Super-I” as a result of social prohibitions and rewards, the entire mental apparatus begins to act as a whole. According to Freud, the main factors that govern the human psyche are pleasures and repression, when the psyche rejects the unacceptable.

Freud tries to find out the origin of the energy of the unconscious. Answering this question, in 1920 he put forward the first psychoanalytic system, according to which the unconscious is based on the sexual instinct - “libido”. This theory was criticized, and Freud later developed a second psychological scheme in which the energy of the unconscious is controlled by "Eros" - the life instinct, and "Thanatos" - the death instinct.

Expanding the scope of use of psychoanalysis, Freud applied it to problems of interpersonal relationships, to the psychology of the masses, to the instincts of culture, which he interpreted in the spirit of psychologism. The main problem that Freud tried to solve was the problem of conflict between man and society. According to Freud, every person strives to satisfy his instincts and drives, and society suppresses these aspirations, which causes a person’s hostile attitude towards the culture of society.

Task No. 3: Reveal the main characteristics of two models of behavior according to Fromm.

Based on Freud's teachings, the philosophical movement of neo-Freudianism arose, which was developed by his students A. Adler, W. Reich, K. Jung, E. Fromm.

In particular, E. Fromm criticized orthodox Freudianism and based his teaching on concepts of a social nature, which express the totality of fundamental human needs: needs similar to the needs of animals and human needs. He posed the problem of human existence and identified its main contradictions: patriarchy and matriarchy, power and subordination, personal existence and historical existence, etc. The goal of his philosophy is to help a person solve these problems, and the main way to solve it is the cultivation of universal love. Fromm saw the meaning of life in the active manifestation of personality in all spheres of life.

Erich Fromm developed the idea of two models of behavior chosen by an individual. Or he follows the path of acquisition, trying to get as many things as possible into his own property - the path that the majority of the population of Western countries, called “consumer society,” has chosen. Or he improves the abilities inherent in everyone. The task, therefore, is to replace the aggressive-consumer attitude towards the world with a loving-creative attitude.

The main conclusion of Fromm’s “The Art of Loving” is that love “is the only healthy and adequate solution to the problem of human existence.” Therefore, “any society that in one way or another limits the development of love will inevitably perish sooner or later, coming into conflict with the basic needs of human nature.”

1. Title page in accordance with STP1.2-2005.

2. Purpose of the work

3. Task

4. Practical work completed in accordance with the assignment

5. Answers to security questions

Control questions

1. Describe the meaning of the existential principle: the existence of a person precedes his essence;

2. Analyze the teachings of S. Kierkegaard;

3. Identify the purpose of Erich Fromm’s philosophy.

The emergence of irrational philosophy in the 19th century

1.1 A. Schopenhauer

The first representative of the philosophy of life was the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). For some time, Schopenhauer worked with Hegel in the philosophy department at the University of Berlin. (Schopenhauer was an assistant professor and Hegel a professor.) Interestingly, Schopenhauer made an attempt to teach his philosophy as an alternative course to Hegel's philosophy, and even scheduled his lectures at the same time as Hegel. But Schopenhauer failed and was left without listeners. Subsequently, from the second half of the 19th century, the glory of Schopenhauer eclipsed the glory of Hegel. The failure of the lectures in Berlin was doubly offensive to Schopenhauer, since he sharply negatively assessed Hegel’s philosophy, sometimes calling it either the delirium of a paranoid or the brazen nonsense of a charlatan. Particularly unflattering was Schopenhauer's opinion of dialectic, which he considered a cunning device to mask the absurdity and shortcomings of the Hegelian system.

Schopenhauer's main work is “The World as Will and Representation” (1819). The title of this work reflects the main ideas of Schopenhauer's teachings. The whole world, from his point of view, represents the will to live. The will to live is inherent in all living beings, including man, whose will to live is most significant, because man is endowed with reason and knowledge. Each individual person has his own will to live - not the same for all people. All other people exist in his view as dependent on the boundless egoism of man, as phenomena that are significant only from the point of view of his will to live, his interests. The human community is thus represented as the totality of the wills of individuals. A special organization - the state - somehow balances the manifestations of these wills so that people do not destroy each other. Overcoming egoistic impulses is carried out, according to Schopenhauer, in the sphere of art and morality.

In Schopenhauer's views one can notice some similarities with the ideas of Buddhism. And this is no coincidence, since he knew Indian culture, highly valued and used its ideas in his teaching. True, Schopenhauer did not join the eightfold path of the Buddha, but just like the Buddhists, he was pessimistic about the attempts and possibility of creating a just and happy society on Earth, devoid of suffering and selfishness. Therefore, Schopenhauer's teachings are sometimes called pessimism. Schopenhauer was one of the first philosophers who pointed out the important role in human life of the unconscious, instinctive impulses associated with the biological origin of man. Similar ideas were subsequently used by Freud in creating his theory. Schopenhauer's works were distinguished by their vivid style, metaphorical nature, and figurative expression. One of his original works was “Treatise on Love.” Schopenhauer believed that love is too serious a phenomenon to be left only to poets. In Schopenhauer's "Treatise" there are many interesting, vivid images arising from his system, for example, love is a strong attraction that arises between two people of the opposite sex. Attraction, a mysterious force that attracts lovers, is a manifestation of the will of an unborn being, their unborn child - that is, nature “calculates” at the level of the organisms of two people that, from a biological point of view, the combination of these organisms will produce optimal offspring, and as a result, the energy of mutual attraction of these organisms.

Schopenhauer is usually called one of the founders of irrationalism, meaning by this term all those directions that belittled the role of the rational, conscious in human behavior. According to the views of supporters of some philosophical schools, irrationalism is a negative phenomenon.

It would be more accurate to say that Schopenhauer simply explained the basics of human behavior better, but not in the most flattering way for people.

1.2 F. Nietzsche

Nietzsche's philosophy is not organized into a system. Nietzsche considered “the will to the system” to be unconscionable. His research covers all possible issues of philosophy, religion, ethics, psychology, sociology, etc. Inheriting Schopenhauer, Nietzsche contrasts his philosophy with the classical tradition of rationality, questioning and questioning all the “evidence” of reason. Nietzsche's greatest interest is in questions of morality, "the revaluation of all values." Nietzsche was one of the first to question the unity of the subject, the causality of the will, truth as the single basis of the world, and the possibility of rational justification of actions. His metaphorical, aphoristic presentation of his views earned him fame as the greatest stylist. However, for Nietzsche, an aphorism is not just a style, but a philosophical attitude - not to give final answers, but to create tension in thought, to enable the reader himself to “resolve” the emerging paradoxes of thought.

Nietzsche specifies Schopenhauer's "Will to Life" as "Will to Power", since life is nothing more than the desire to expand one's power. However, Nietzsche criticizes Schopenhauer for nihilism, for his negative attitude towards life. Considering the entire culture of mankind as the way in which a person adapts to life, Nietzsche proceeds from the primacy of self-affirmation of life, its excess and completeness. In this sense, every religion and philosophy must glorify life in all its manifestations, and everything that denies life and its self-affirmation is worthy of death. First of all, Nietzsche considered Christianity to be the great negation of life (see Antichrist). Nietzsche was the first to declare that “there are no moral phenomena, there are only moral interpretations of phenomena,” thereby subjecting all moral positions to relativism. According to Nietzsche, healthy morality should glorify and strengthen life, its will to power. Any other morality is decadent, a symptom of illness, decadence. Humanity instinctively uses morality to achieve its goal - the goal of expanding its power. The question is not whether morality is true, but whether it serves its purpose. We observe such a “pragmatic” formulation of the question in Nietzsche in relation to philosophy and culture in general. Nietzsche advocates for the arrival of such “free minds” who will set themselves conscious goals of “improving” humanity, whose minds will no longer be “stupefied” by any morality, by any restrictions. Nietzsche calls such a “supermoral” person, “beyond good and evil”, “superman”, “blond beast”. Regarding knowledge, the “will to truth,” Nietzsche again adheres to his “pragmatic” approach, asking “why do we need truth?” For the purposes of life, truth is not needed; rather, illusion and self-deception lead humanity to its goal - self-improvement in the sense of expanding the will to power. But the "free minds", the chosen ones, must know the truth in order to be able to control this movement. These chosen ones, the immoralists of humanity, the creators of values, must know the reasons for their actions, give an account of their goals and means. Nietzsche devotes many of his works to this “school” of free minds.

1.3 A. Bergson

Henri Bergson, a representative of the philosophy of life, was the most famous and influential of all French philosophers of the first half of the 20th century. The driving force of his reasoning is the contrast between the “result” of knowledge - theories and concepts - and living reality. His strategic idea is the need to “supplement the theory of knowledge with the theory of life.” Bergson asserts “life” as the true and original reality. He believes that “life” eludes us only because we try to grasp it through intellectual means, which is like trying to scoop up water with a sieve. The theoretical reconstruction of “life” is impossible - that’s what Bergson is absolutely sure of. The essence of life, according to Bergson, can only be comprehended with the help of intuition, since we experience life and, therefore, are able to perceive it directly. Intuition is called upon to answer all questions traditionally considered philosophical. Bergson's philosophy of life is also called INTUITIVISM. This is a philosophy that sees intuition as the only reliable means of knowledge. Although intuitionist tendencies are inherent in many philosophers and philosophical movements of the past, intuitionism as a specific movement emerged at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, being a type of irrationalism. Bergson contrasts intuition with intellect, treating it as a tool for operating with “dead things” - material, spatial objects. “Intelligence,” he asserts, “is characterized by a natural misunderstanding of life.” In physics, for example, Bergson argues, time is not “real” time. Feeling this, we must turn to the characteristics of “true” time. Bergson devoted a special work to the analysis of the physical concept of time - “Duration and Simultaneity”, in which he analyzes the physical concept of time as it is presented in the special theory of relativity. Bergson argues that under the scientific concept of time - "spatialized", "unreal" - there is a "real duration" that "is experienced by us." This is where we come, according to Bergson, into contact with the “true nature of life.” The “essence” of the world for Bergson is “time”, but this “qualitative”, “living” time is radically different from mechanical-physical time. Bergson developed a specific concept of development, which he called “creative evolution.” Insisting that “real” evolution is “creativity,” Bergson seems to freeze on this statement, only decorating and diversifying it terminologically - for example, replacing the term “creative evolution” with the term “duration” or the phrase “vital impulse.” He is absolutely right in characterizing his model of evolution as unscientific. Most likely, it is natural philosophy. In his last major philosophical work, “The Two Sources of Morality and Religion,” Bergson distinguishes two types of society and, accordingly, two types of morality: CLOSED and OPEN. "Closed society" - arose on the basis of coercion in order to preserve the integrity and stability of the existing social structure. In contrast to a “closed society”, which embraces separate closed and hostile groups of individuals, an “open society” must unite all of humanity and be built on love, mutual sympathy, arising from a “spiritual impulse” that reveals a world of freedom and love to selected individuals, infinitely superior to the mechanism of the "closed society".

2. The idea of the unconscious in philosophy

2.1 S. Freud

Many theorists of psychoanalytic orientation have long considered Freud as the scientist who first discovered the sphere of the unconscious, thereby making a revolution in science. However, such ideas are far from the true state of affairs. Freud introduced the idea of the levels of structure of the psyche; He was the first to examine the relationship between consciousness and the unconscious. This scientist is the founder of psychoanalysis. According to many, his achievements in this field put him on par with thinkers such as Darwin, Marx and Einstein. Freud in many ways overturned the idea of man that existed before him. By the time psychoanalytic teaching was created, ideas about the unconscious were in wide circulation, both among philosophers and among physicians. Therefore, it is not surprising that Freud turned to understanding this problem, placing it at the center of his psychoanalytic teaching.

Freud showed that our psyche, in the process of evolution, acquired a precious gift - the ability to displace unpleasant experiences from consciousness into other parts of it. Of course, we simply could not withstand such a strain of consciousness if all our life catastrophes were collected in this one area. Mental traumas are repressed into those parts of the psyche that are called the unconscious.

We cease to be aware of them, but they continue to act and often determine the content of consciousness. The founder of psychoanalysis says that a person’s suppressed and repressed desire “continues to exist and waits only for the first opportunity to become active...”. For Freud, the unconscious is a receptacle of instincts, subject to comprehension only in connection with a person. Freud's ideas about the human psyche as consisting of: It (unconscious), Ego (consciousness) and Super-ego (conscience) are known. The relationship between the unconscious and consciousness, where it is compared to a horse, and the I - to a rider sitting on a horse, but practically subordinate to its unbridled impulses, ideas about the Super-Ego - all this is often perceived as a new word in the history of science and philosophy, said for the first time Freud. However, in the history of philosophy there are earlier analogues of similar views on the human psyche. First of all, Freud proceeds from the fact that every mental process exists first in the unconscious and only then can it appear in the sphere of consciousness, and not all mental acts become conscious. Freud presents the unconscious as an inherited deep layer, in the depths of which hidden mental movements swarm, expressing various unconscious human drives. Consciousness acts as an intermediary between the unconscious and the external world, designed to assist in influencing this world on the unconscious activities of the individual. In psychoanalytic philosophy, the unconscious appears as two independent mental processes: hidden, but capable of becoming conscious, and repressed, which in itself cannot become conscious. This often leads to an ambiguous understanding of the unconscious. Psychoanalytic philosophy was based on revealing the content of the repressed unconscious, although this is only part of the concept and does not completely cover it.

So Freud revolutionized our idea of the subject. He sought to show that conscious life is only a small part of the entire mental existence of a person. If we compare our psyche to an iceberg, then the surface part is all that is conscious, and the unconscious will be associated with a much larger invisible mass of ice that is under water. It is this invisible mass that determines both the center of gravity and the course of the iceberg; the unconscious is the core of our individuality.

2.2 K.G. Jung

Carl Jung accused Freud of exaggerating sexuality. “Freud put sexuality in the place of a jealous god..”, created the theory of the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is traces of the memory of all past generations, it is a mental matrix that is determined by the collective experience of a person. These are certain mental forms and ideas that were repeated countless times and settled in the form of the unconscious and are devoid of specific content. Specific content appears when individual experience is superimposed on these ready-made forms. The collective unconscious manifests itself in the form of archetypes that are transmitted through traditions and through population migration. This is a layer of the pre-rational psyche, this is a borderline state between the instincts of an animal and the conscious activity of people. Archetypes originate and appear in myths, fairy tales, Buddhist and yogic practices, and in dreams. They are constantly filled with content depending on reality. Evil - devil-tempter Good - mission - redeemer - prophet. The image of a father and mother came to us from the past and in our reality the image of our Father and Mother is superimposed on them. Carl Jung distinguished between the Western type of people (extroverts) and the Eastern type of people (introverts). The Western person is directed outward (I am in the center, and the world is around me), the Eastern person is peace within a person, contemplation, patience), Carl Jung thought about how to connect these 2 types of people. The mediative part of the personality has been lost in Western man. If Freud's unconscious has a negative character, then Jung's collective unconscious has a positive character - it is the basic structure of the psyche, the storehouse of human wisdom. Jung's persona is an artificial image, a mask, part of our personality, which is exposed to other people, partially revealing and hiding the true personality.

2.3 E. Fromm

Erich Fromm (1900-1980) German-American philosopher, psychologist and sociologist, one of the leading representatives of neo-Freudianism. The theory created by Erich Fromm attracts psychologists primarily because it, like no other, thoroughly describes the social determinants of human personality. Fromm tried to combine history and economics in his psychological research, taking into account both the class structure of society and biological factors in human development. Critical of the socio-economic theory of Marxism and Freudian psychoanalysis, Fromm combined their real achievements in his theory. His approach, called “humanistic psychoanalysis,” suggests that the main source of fear, anxiety, feelings of loneliness and isolation is man’s separation from the natural world. Humanistic psychoanalysis views a person from a cultural-historical rather than a psychological point of view, and is more focused on the culture as a whole rather than on the individual. Fromm was not only an outstanding psychological theorist, but also a publicist, psychotherapist, philosopher, Bible scholar, cultural anthropologist, and psychobiography specialist. It was this interdisciplinary approach that allowed Fromm to formulate an original position on the “human dilemma”, based on the ideas of evolutionism. In short, the principles of evolutionism boil down to the fact that when, during the evolution of the animal kingdom, human beings became isolated as a separate species, they lost most of the animal instincts, but “succeeded in mental development, which allowed them to be self-aware, fantasize, make plans and make judgments” ( Fromm, 1992, p. 5). It is this combination of weakened instincts, on the one hand, and highly developed mental abilities, on the other, that distinguishes man from other animals. "...self-awareness, reason and reason destroy that "harmony" of natural existence, which is characteristic of all animals. Consciousness makes a person some kind of anomalous natural phenomenon, a grotesque, an irony of the Universe. Man... cannot free himself from either his body or from one's ability to think" (Fromm, 1973). Considering the human personality as the result of a dynamic opposition between innate needs and the norms of the society in which a particular individual exists, Fromm formulated a theory of types of social characters - productive and unproductive. Another of Fromm’s ideas, which has received perhaps the most wide dissemination, is the concept he developed of man’s relationship to freedom. The rise of capitalism, on the one hand, gave people personal freedom and leisure, but on the other, it instilled in them a sense of anxiety, isolation and powerlessness. The price of freedom, Fromm argued, exceeds its benefits. The inevitable sense of isolation born of capitalism leaves people with only two alternatives: to take refuge from freedom in interpersonal dependence or to move towards self-realization through love, creativity and work. Fromm began his career as a psychotherapist using the techniques of traditional psychoanalysis, but then began to be burdened by the narrow framework of the Freudian approach and move towards a more dynamic and provocative method. In his humanistic concept, Fromm adheres to the “golden mean” between free will and certainty, optimism and pessimism, consciousness and subconscious forces, uniqueness and similarity. His contribution to the understanding of human personality at this stage of social development is truly difficult to overestimate. And it would not be an exaggeration to say that now, by the beginning of the new century, Fromm’s ideas in the field of cultural sciences (sociology, psychology, etc.) have reached the widest possible audience.

Positivism as a philosophy of science: essence and main stages of development (Neopositivism. Analytical philosophy of L. Wittgenstein. Postpositivism. Critical rationalism of K. Popper, P. Feyerabend).

The 20th century brought significant changes to the socio-economic and political life of the world. One of the most important signs of the new century was the acceleration of the pace of development and the increasing role of science in public life. However, the process of technization of society led to the formation of a technogenic civilization, with all the ensuing problems. The 20th century was also marked by two of the largest wars in human history, the Cold War, and the rise of environmental problems. It turned out that the development of technology is not the key to solving all problems. On the contrary, much more serious problems have appeared (for example, weapons of mass destruction). Economic development has led to the emergence of the phenomenon of consumer society. All this could not but give rise to various attempts to explain the paths of further development, as well as a new understanding of the role and place of man and human civilization in the world.

Representatives of renewed positivism were engaged in understanding the positive role of the scientific and technical process, as well as the structure, as well as the mechanism of functioning of scientific knowledge in the 20th century. As is known, positivism in its development goes through three stages: “first positivism” - 40-70s of the 19th century, “second positivism”, or empirio-criticism - 70s of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century, “third positivism”, or neopositivism – 20-50s of the XX century.

Neopositivism is the third stage in the development of positivism in the 20s of the twentieth century. It is based on the conviction that it is possible to solve philosophical and methodological issues of science, abstracting from philosophy as metaphysics (here we mean the philosophical-idealistic doctrine of the supersensible principles of being) and relying only on positive knowledge. It gained particular popularity among the scientific intelligentsia in the 30s and 40s. Within its framework, logical and linguistic positivism are distinguished. Logical positivism (R. Carnap, M. Schlick) - the original form of neopositivism - was based on the rejection of philosophical categories in solving the problem of formalization and the relationship between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge. Neopositivists viewed the problem of the development of scientific knowledge as a formal-logical one and reduced the analysis of science to the analysis of the language of science, the interpretation of mathematics and logic as formal transformations in scientific knowledge and its language. However, already in the 50s it became clear that abstraction from so-called metaphysical problems has its limits. Classical philosophical concepts turned out to be very significant for the methodology and theory of knowledge and especially for understanding anthropological problems related to the problem of man, his purpose in the world, and issues of life and death. Even in the most fundamental scientific theories, metaphysical constructions have been found. All this led to the turn of neopositivism to the analysis of linguistic formations, to the distinction between the correct and incorrect use of language, which, according to representatives of linguistic philosophy, leads to the emergence of unverifiable metaphysical constructs. The founder of linguistic positivism was the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. He abandoned the outdated method of analyzing sentences in the subject-predicate form and followed the path of distinguishing between the meaning and meaning of linguistic expressions and the logical analysis of language. According to Wittgenstein, meaning is inherent only in sentences that reflect factual situations. "Names" are only signs of "objects". The world is just a collection of combinations of “objects” and “facts”. Logical forms are not expressed in language, so it is impossible to look into the world in rational ways. Philosophy, according to Wittgenstein, does not solve the question of truth. It only analyzes, clarifies the logical structure of the language and eliminates meaningless sentences.

As a result of a critical revision of the methodological principles of neopositivism and the rejection of the radical empiricism of the entire positivist movement as a whole, postpositivism arises. Its main ideas were formulated at the turn of the 50-60s by K. Popper and T. Kuhn and developed in the works of I. Lakatos and S. Toulmin. In contrast to neopositivist concepts, which focused exclusively on problems of language, i.e., on the problems of accurately expressing existing knowledge, postpositivists propose a new program, the essence of which is to highlight the historical analysis of science, i.e., the study of the “growth” of scientific knowledge. knowledge. Postpositivists are convinced that theoretical thinking is directly involved in the process of cognition, often even ahead of empirical experience. Indeed, even in order to fix some phenomenon as a “purely empirical (i.e., sensory-perceptible) fact,” a person must pay attention to it, distinguish it from countless other phenomena, prefer it to all others, in other words, treat it as more important, more significant, more valuable than all others. Therefore, postpositivists abandon the positivist ideal of “preconditionless knowledge”, speaking not about opposition, but, on the contrary, about the interpenetration of the empirical and theoretical, about the “theoretical load” of empirical facts.

The religious revival in Russia intensified the debate between philosophers of the idealist and materialist schools. The latter is represented primarily by Marxism, in the spread of which in Russia at the end of the 19th century G.V. played a major role. Plekhanov (1856-1918), one of the greatest Marxist philosophers. Plekhanov dealt with problems of the history of philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, theory of knowledge and the materialist understanding of history.

Since the mid-90s of the 19th century, V.I. Lenin (1870-1924) has played a decisive role in the development of domestic Marxism. He dealt mainly with problems of social theory and practice: he developed the theory of imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism, the theory of socialist revolution. The tasks of the ideological struggle prompted him to write the theoretical work “Materialism and Empirio-Criticism” (1911). Some Marxist philosophers sought to reform Marxism, to combine it with some of the latest philosophical teachings (“empiriomonism” by A. Bogdanov, God-seeking and God-building by A. Lunacharsky). In his work, Lenin criticized attempts at reform of Marxism, criticized empirio-criticism as a subjective-idealistic philosophy, and gave a new definition of matter: “Matter is an objective reality given to us in sensation.” In “Philosophical Notebooks” (1916), Lenin turns to a materialist study of the problems of dialectics. The process of cognition of the world is considered by him from the point of view of the theory of reflection. Lenin's philosophical works determined the main features of Soviet philosophy for a long time.

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